That great, growling engine of change -- technology.

Alvin Toffler, Future Shock, 1970

Introduction

In Part I of Science, Technology, and Society we reviewed Andrew Webster's thoughts about the paradox of science, the role of the active citizen, and the shortcomings of relying upon scientists to be the sole crafters of technology policy. In this part, we will review Webster's suggestions for how technology policy should be formed.


Compass

    Key Questions

      How do social institutions and public policies affect science and technology?

    Examples

      Is the American public sufficiently informed about science and technology to make a valuable contribution to technology policy?

      Should the public be concerned that institutions such as Iowa State University have sold themselves out to commercial interests? Can you site instances that lead you to believe that research conducted at ISU is biased in favor of commercial interests?

      What can scientists do to give the public more confidence in the integrity of their research?

      Does American society have adequate control over the sampler technologies? How can science and technology development be controlled? Should a society even attempt to control advances in pure science?


Society and Science Policy

Webster takes note of an emerging emphasis on the commercialization of public sector research and development. Public universities are being encouraged to enter into cooperative agreements with the private sector to develop and transfer technology with national and international commercial potential. The role of the state and commercial interests in setting science policy has always been a concern of scientists, even though they often benefit from national policy objectives and technology transfer to the commercial sector. Webster discusses three concerns that have been voiced about this trend by scientists conducting research in public universities:
  1. To what extent will commercial interests manipulate the direction and focus of scientific research?
  2. Will the conditions of work and the relationships among scholars change with increased emphasis upon meeting the needs of the commercial sector?
  3. What impact will commercialization have on the free access to and exchange of information, data, materials, and findings among scientists?

The Public and Science Policy

Controlling science is an exceptionally difficult task; who or what is to be controlled for what purposes? To what extent should the public be involved in setting the directions and scope of science? The public's involvement in setting national research priorities requires public knowledge of not just the content of science, but the institution of science as well. Thus, knowledge of content is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for deciding wise science policy (and it is very difficult to educate the public about complex technologies).

The media plays a very important role in shaping public opinion. Traditionally, the media has portrayed the institution of science as authoritative, objective, unbiased, and so forth. But with increasing public concern over the risks associated with advanced technology, and increased attention directed toward the shortcomings of technology, the media has taken a more critical look at both the content and practice of science. In turn, the public has become more skeptical of science and technology.

Pressure groups tend to focus on a single technology or scientific theory for the purpose of challenging the value of science in building a good society. This type of challenge to science typically takes the form of public debate and confrontations between the citizen groups and representatives of the scientific community or business leaders with vested interests in a specific technology.

Sometimes public pressure can have significant effects on the direction and outputs of science. The movement toward the development and dissemination of appropriate technology in developing nations, for example, has dramatically affected research and outreach worldwide.

The alternative science movement attempts to institutionalize alternative approaches to science to maintain an emphasis on critical evaluation of established research and development organizations. Feminist and religious organizations, to name two examples, attempt to redirect approaches taken by scientific institutions in recruiting scholars, setting research priorities, and developing technology.

Webster concludes that the public, through various forms of advocacy groups, can exert significant influences on scientific institutions and the content of science, including the formulation of what is considered to be scientific facts.


Application in Context

    Has Iowa "Sold Itself Out" to Corporate Farming?
    1. The state of Iowa is making large investments into biotechnology. And the Republican and Democratic candidates for Governor support increasing investments in biotechnology. At the same time, the legislature cut funding from the Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture by 86 percent. Has Iowa "sold itself out" corporate farming?
    2. Has Iowa State University "sold itself out" to large, corporate interests?


Policy Recommendations

Webster reminds us of the inherent connections among science, technology, and society. He points out that science is a human enterprise and thus is influenced by social, political, and economic interests. He encourages citizens living in a country ruled by democratic processes to be active--to become aware of and involved in science and technology policy formation. He urges us to recognize some general principles of science and technology development. Science can be neither objective nor infallible. It is necessary, therefore, for active citizens in a democratic society to take the responsibility for the ownership of science and technology development.

In addition to these recommendations for citizens, Webster suggests five directions for the social science research on science. Webster suggests that social scientists should pay greater attention to:
  1. the 'political economy' of the scientific laboratory,
  2. the organization and culture of private sector research and development,
  3. the impact of public interest groups on science and technology,
  4. integrating other social sciences into the sociology of science, and
  5. building linkages between the sociology of science and public policy makers who influence the direction of science and technology.
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